'Venuti’s Theory of Foregnisation Applied to the Phenomenon\r'

' caramel br suffer- rendering and heterogeneity: Venuti’s scheme of foregnisation utilise to the phenomenon of strike out- reading In this abidevass I draw appear to explore the bound to which Lawrence Venuti’s hypothesis of external(prenominal)ising commentary tramp buoy be commit extensivey applied to relieve the coiffures of strike out- rendering communities. Fan- displacement ( here(predicate)after, FT) is a relatively recent phenomenon. O’Hagan , following Flew’s definition of substance ab drug user Generated Content (Flew 2008 in OHagan 2009, p. 7) derives the term ‘ user Generated Translation’ (hereafter, UGT) in lay out to pull in a â€Å"wide range of variant, carried out(p) based on muster out use corporation in digital media spaces where exposition is down the stairstaken by unspecified self-selected privates” (OHagan 2009, p. 97). The user in question is on that pointfore roughbody who â€Å"v oluntarily act as a ‘remediator’ of lingu everyy in convenient produces and ‘direct producer’ of definition on the basis of [his] knowledge of the assumption quarrel as sound as that of a specific media suffice or literary genre, spurred by [his] substantial invade in the topic (OHagan 2009, p. 7). UGT then could be applied to either those deracinations carried out by non-professional arrangers, practically for non-financial motives. The term FT in this screen will be use more(prenominal)(prenominal)(prenominal) specifically to describe the practice of those users whose interest is directed towards a p fine articular genre: that of Nipponese ethnical commodities or, more specifically, japanese pictorial novels (Manga), and animated movies (anime). The question that I would standardised to address in this experiment is whether Lawrence Venuti’s in eloquential theory of comment (Venuti 1995,1998) shtup help further understandin g the phenomenon of FT.The goal of this essay is to claim that or so fits of Venuti’s ‘foregnisation’ theory do indeed go to to compositors caseise fan- representatives activities, scorn the obvious sceneual take issueences. These differences argon easily summarised: FT is non carried out by a whiz individual or eventide by a single collection of individuals (un resembling the cases cited by Venuti, where he any refers to a group of romantic intellects in 19th speed of light Germany, or later isolated cases (Venuti 1995, pp. 9-147, 187-272), and a practice carried out on a wider scale, embraced by a greater payoff of individuals educateing together as a fraternity of practice, in general imperturbable of non-professional translators, often very young, not al expressive styles overlap the very(prenominal) subject atomic number 18a identity, and closely lacking the intelligibly specify ethnic schedule that Venuti exposed as a en tirelyification for advocating the call forion of unusualising interpreting practices (Venuti 1995, pp. 6-17). Fandom Fan activities brook gathered scholarly trouble in recent days repayable to the opportunities for community building and the ease of sharing capacitance that the recent incarnation of the ball Wide Web, or Web 2. 0, offers ( apprehend for case (Diaz Cintas and Munoz Sanchez 2006; Lee 2009; Sanchez 2009; Koulikov 2010; Watson 2010; Denison 2011; Lee 2011; Castells and Cardoso 2012).The reason for practically(prenominal) scholarly attention is that fan activities, in the form of sharing digital suffice online, nookie be said to carry a ‘liminal space’ (Denison 2011) that is dangerously keep out to what is often called ( hardly not often clearly delimit) ‘ plagiarisation’: fan text editions that be at the â€Å"liminal edge among fan creativeness and plagiarisation. Essentially…text augmented by, instead than cre ated by, fans” (Denison 2011, p. 450).For this reason, fan activities built on the descent that is constituted in the reception of a crabbed form of writings provoke been the subject of academic interest: â€Å"anime texts learn produce nexus points for communication about giveership and rights”(Napier 2007 and Thornton 1995 in Denison 2011, p. 450). inside the wider spectrum of fan-related practices, some individuals play the role of ‘prosumers’: producers and consumers of products, misrepresentnatively than passive spectators (Tapscott and Williams, 2006 in OHagan 2009, p. 9). Prosumers not besides consume pagan products, but alike manifest agency by responding creatively to their favourite text or medium. virtually simulations of fans creative response analysed by juristic scholars could be the theatrical earshot sorticipation to showings of The Rocky Horror Show, Town bands perform free c erstwhilerts, the the Statesn musical impos t â€Å"the blues” (Madison 2007, pp. 87-703), amateur fan actors producing radical episodes of Star Trek, fan produced Harry muck around Lexicon, fan- do flash based verve derived from music, fan-created variant of commercial-gradely created virtual mascot Miku Hatsune (Noda 2010, pp. 149-158), which argon all forms of participation that sit uneasily with the archetype of noetic property rights. The practices of fans of Nipponese comicals and animation have been of particular interest to profound theorists (Mehra 2002; Hatcher 2005; Lessig 2005; Muscar 2006; Noda 2008, 2010).Here it is useful to distinguish surrounded by the practices of the dojinshi (hereafter non italicised) community and the practices of the FT community or, to be more specific, communities, since fan translators operating on antithetic media atomic number 18 set forth with diverse call up calling: comment of Japanese graphic novels is carried out by a cognitive operation of Scanlation ; subtitling of Japanese animation is carried out by a process called Fansubbing; and at last, the process of modification and rendering of video games is called RomHacking. DojinshiWhat atomic number 18 dojinshi, and wherefore ar they of interest to good scholar? Lawrence Lessing, professor of uprightness at Harvard Law instill and founding board member of inventive Commons, in his 2004 work promiscuous finale: how big media uses technology and the honor to twine down finish and control condition creative thinking, uses dojinshi as an example of derivative instrument works that could not exist in America, since dojinshi argon â€Å"A kind of copycat comic… It is not dojinshi if it is just a copy; the workman must coif a contribution to the art he copies, by transforming it either subtly or significantly.A dojinshi comic can thus take a mainstream comic and develop it diametricallyâ€with a contrasting story line. Or the comic can keep the character i n character but change its look slightly. on that point is no formula for what actualises the dojinshi sufficiently â€Å"different. ” alone they must be different if they are to be considered true dojinshi” (Lessig 2005, pp. 25-26) Dojinshi are the Japanese version of what is early(a)wise called fan-fiction; in opposite(a) voice communication, un generatorised fan-created version or pilot burner works.The term Dojinshi (???. Literally ‘dojin’ stands for ‘ very(prenominal) mortal’ and ‘shi’ stands for ‘periodical publication’, which in position could be rendered as Fanzine or Fan-magazine). Dojinshi denoted a type of fan works that are â€Å"self- produce, subtile scale publications written by fans for fans of a particular work (be it a movie, a book, a television series, or a video game) or of a particular romantic pairing practicable within that work”(Hemmann 2010).Dojinshi are an of the essence( p) side of the grow that surrounds Japanese graphic novels (manga: ?? literally ‘man’ stands for ‘whimsical’ and ‘ga’ stands for ‘drawings’) in Japan. Manga represent both an application and a form of expression, so oft so that in recent age the Japanese Ministry of Economy, Trade and Industry (METI) began to see manga as the new source of Japan’s â€Å"Gross National unruffled’ (McGray 2002 in Koulikov 2010, p. 18) and began promoting the country’s caseed pains abroad (Yoshimoto 2003 in Koulikov 2010, p. 10).The Japanese manga industry and the dojinshi fan-communities reenforce each different in a way that is maybe surprising to western legal theorists because it raises great questions in regards to the efficacy and meaningfulness of right of first publication practices and of the stems nearly pilot programity and rootageship that underpins procure law and associated commercial practices in t he west: â€Å"This grocery exists in parallel to the mainstream commercial manga market. In some ways, it obviously competes with that market, but there is no sustained private road by those who control the commercial manga market to shut the doujinshi market down.It flourishes, despite the competition and despite the law […] in the view of many, it is precisely because it exists that Japanese manga flourish” Lessing 2004, p. 26 The practice of scanlation and fansubbing differ from those of dojinshi artists in some important ways. send-off of all, they are mostly carried out by fans outside of Japan, and more specifically, magical spell they are carried out in a diverseness of verbiages, the majority of the work is carried out by slope language fans (Denison 2011, p. 54). Additionally, I would entreat that scanlation and fansubbing do not inhabit the same opinionual space of fan-fiction and dojinshi, even if right of first publication law regards adaptation a nd edition as as derivative works (WIPO bind 2 (3)). Dojinshi artists working within the whim of ‘complementing the original work’, while un germised, are innovationually closer to the wider spectrum of fan activities that are often tolerated in the west (like audience participation to theatrical performances).FT seems to inhabit a narrower apprehensionual space, closer, and more readily compromised by proximity, to the practices of un generatorised copying that is denounced as plagiarization, despite the ambiguity of the term piracy itself: â€Å"piracy has never had a stable legal definition and is almost certainly smash understood as a product of enforcement debates than as a description of a specific behaviour. The terms blurs, and is often used intentionally to blur, important distinction mingled with types of uncompensated use” (Karaganis et al. 2011, p. ) In read to seek a conceptualisation of the practices of fan translators, here I would like t o adopt Venuti’s framework of domesticating and inappropriateising interpreting. My intention in the next part of the essay is to expatiate how FT of Japanese manga and anime could ferret out precedents in the history of interpretation. In on the spur of the moment, I draw from Venuti’s sarcastic family tree of fluent discourse in the incline language translation in come out to show that FT should not merely be thought of as free-riding, but that it persuades elements of previous use of translation as tool for building a national elaboration (Venuti 1995, 100).Similarly, FT can be said to represent a fomite for the construction of sub-cultural capital , the â€Å"knowledge astir(predicate) an area of fandom that allows one to feel commodious with other like-minded fans, but as intimately to gain status among fellow enthusiasts â€Å" (Napier 2007, p. cl in Denison 2011, p. 450) Translation Translation studies as an academic take has a relatively shor t history, emerging about twenty dollar bill years ago from the back of proportional literary works departments. The independence of translation studies as an academic discipline revolves around its methodological analysis and the questions it aims to answer.Hence, an important question faces every Translation Studies student: should one restrict his motion to the analysis of linguistic features of a text, or should attention be stipendiary to the context where the practice of translation takes place: the catch of the translator; his/her motivation; what void in the receiving gloss is the translator trying to fulfill; the interests played behind the importation and exportation of culture; how law, market, cordial norms and publishing practices all influence the creation of culture of which translation is part of; whether all these form a kind of censorship, and should the translator deny of adapt to much(prenominal) censorship, even when is self-censorship? In this essay I would like to explore the possibilities offered by the latter approach, by comparing and contrast two roughhewn elements of present-day(a) translation: on the one hand, the detailed work of Venuti in regards to ‘tameness and foregnisation’ and on the other, the â€Å"phenomenon of user participation in otherwise highly specialised areas of professional translation practice” (OHagan 2009, p. 96). To begin with, I would like to expose the work of Lawrence Venuti (1995, 1998).Venuti describes the bring up of modern translation around the foundation as distinguishd by asymmetry: the imbalance among the immense number of books that are generated from slope and the small number of books that are translated into English. This trade imbalance is an effect of the global domination of English which, according to Venuti, leads to a â€Å"complacency in Anglo-American relations with cultural others” apparent in publishing practices in Britain and Amer ica that â€Å"decreases the cultural capital of overseas set in English by desexing the number of outside(prenominal) text translated and submitting them to domesticating revision” (Venuti 1995, p. 7) consort to Venuti, publishing practices in Britain and America reinforce the global domination of English by imposing â€Å"Anglo-American cultural encourages on a vast foreign readership”, while adopting practices of translation that produce domestic cultures that are â€Å"aggressively monolingual, unreceptive to the foreign, accustomed to fluent translations that… go forth the readers with the narcissistic bring forth of recognising their own culture in a cultural other”(Venuti 1995, p. 15) Emphasis added). Venuti is critical of the ordinance of volubility that dominated the practice of translation into English. By fluency, Venuti wants to describe a particular way of translating which emphasise the action of texts that control their foreignnes s and instead makes them appear as the original expression of the foreign author, fundamentally un talk terms by the process of translation. Venuti defines such process of assimilation, in a path that conceals the text foreign origin, as ‘ jejuneness’. musical composition admittedly all translation is appropriation and assimilation, domestication has the troubling effect, according to Venuti, of reinforcing an ethnocentric attitude towards foreign cultures: the belief that other cultures are in fact no different from one’s own and therefore, that one’s own culture is universal: â€Å"the prevalence of fluent domestication has supported these developments [the monolingual, unreceptive and narcissistic culture above] because of its economic value: enforced by editors, publishers, and reviewers, fluency results in translation that are eminently readable and therefore expendable in the book market, assisting in their commoditisation and insuring the nonp erformance of foreign texts and English-language translations discourses that are more repellant to easy readability (Venuti 1995, pp. 15-16).In localise to â€Å"resist and change the conditions under which translation is theorised and estimable today, specially in the English- speak countries” Venuti wants to tack forward a â€Å" strategical cultural intervention in the legitimate state of world af justs, pitched against the hegemonic English language nations and their unequal cultural exchanges in which they move theory global others” (Venuti 1995, p. 20). Venuti’s command then is that literary translators, in an effort to challenge current translation practices, should attempt a ‘foreignising’ approach to translation. What this mean in practice is the production of texts that read as translations and the suggested method to fulfill this effect is a theory of translation that emphasise heterogeneity of language.Languages are never monol ithically homogeneous entities: different agents will employ language in a different way, according to whom, and in what manner, is an utterance is addressed. Standard literary English is language that exists provided in translated foreign publications. Foreignising translation then should attempt to separate the homogeneity imposed by textual ‘transparency’ and ‘fluidity’ of the reading acquire by inserting traces of heterogeneous language (slang, dialect, archaism, cliques, etc… ) into an otherwise canonical translation. Foregnisation, according to Venuti, â€Å"can alter the way translations are read as well as produced” (Venuti 1995, p. 24).Whether foregnisation can acquire the results that Venuti’s cultural political agenda aim towards is still unclear; Venuti himself reports that critical reviews of his translated works did indeed cause some reactions; some reviewers found this choice of words unconvincing, suspecting that Ita lian romantics would not have show themselves with the obvious colloquialism that Venuti strategically assiduous (Venuti 1998, 19). Such literary criticism only goes to realise Venuti’s belief: â€Å"the fact is that Italian romantics would not have used most of the words in my translation because they wrote in Italian, not English” (Venuti 1998, 19-20). The reader had to exclude her cultural and linguistic expectations towards to the foreign text and was forced to take notice of the mediated nature of the translated text, exposing in the criticism the â€Å" overabundant narrative form” and â€Å"a habitual ethnic stereotype” (Venuti 1998, 20). Pym (Venuti’s profile Anthony Pym Target 8/2 (1996), pp. 65-177) is dubious about the changeover from foregnisation to the professed popular agenda: â€Å"if translators refuse to produce fluent texts, if they make themselves visible through the use of â€Å" insusceptible” strategies†¦all the rest will sure enough change too. Such would appear to be the gung-ho reasoning that makes Venuti so visible (Pym 2010, p. 2). The passage from a disrupted reading experience to the wider democratic agenda that Venuti takes for granted is preferably unclear. Supposing a reader ‘gets’ what Venuti is trying to do and is taken out of the illusion of cosmosness actually reading the words of the original author: the reader becomes aware of the translation world a translation. How can this, beyond achieving a degree of visibility for the translators, achieve further goals?Venuti himself is aware of these difficulties and asks â€Å"what would happen if a translator tried to redirect the process of domestication by choosing foreign texts that deviated from downright discourse and by translating hem so as to signal their linguistic and cultural differences? Would this effort establish more democratic cultural exchanges? Would it change domestic values? Or would it mean banishment to the fringes of Anglo-American culture? ” (Venuti 1995, pp. 40-41). Central to Venuti’s concerns, however, there is an aspect of translation that Pym recognizes as key to contemporary translation practices: the question of procures. secures Venuti dedicated a chapter of his 1995’s work to the Italian writer Iginio Ugo Tarchetti (1839-1869) (Venuti 1995, 148-186). In 1865, Tarchetti plagiarised Shelley’s rumor â€Å"the mortal immortal” by translating it into Italian without acknowledging the English author.While Venuti recognises that â€Å"the shrewdness and sheer impudence of Tarchetti’s plagiarism may make it attractive to dissidents in Anglo-American literary culture”, he also recognises the practical limits of such practice: â€Å"Tarchetti’s translation practices cannot be imitated today without significant revision. Plagiarism, for example, is largely excluded by right of first publication laws that bind translators as well as authors… to publish an unlicensed translation of a copyrighted foreign text is to invite legal proceedings whose speak to will far exceed the translator’s income from even a bestselling translation” (Venuti 1995, 185). Venuti advice to contemporary English-language translator is not light upon the law, but rather, to choose carefully what to translate: The choice of a foreign text for translation can be just as foreignising in its impact on the target-language culture as the invention of a discursive strategy.At a cartridge clip when deviations from fluency may limit the circulation of a translation or even prevent it from acquire published in the first place, Tarchetti points to the strategic value of discriminating carefully among foreign texts and literatures when a translation project is demonstrable” (Venuti 1995, 185-186). Venuti calls attention to the manner in which contracts and copyright laws fix the produ ction of translated literature. Translation, according to the capital of Switzerland international copyright convention is defined as ‘derivative’ work (WIPO condition 2 (3)). Therefore, translation is incorruptly and de jure bound to the will of the original author (WIPO hold 8).Copyright law varies according to nations, the US and UK lacking the concept of ‘Author’s rights’ that is present in most Continental Europe’s laws, while the US and UK have clearly defined ‘fair use’ clause that are not present in continental Europe. Pym agrees that copyright law on translation fate revision: â€Å"The bringing close together of limiting the author’s translation rights to a short period of perhaps five years sounds like an excellent practical way of stimulating translationsâ€Å" but at the same time, he is sceptical of drastic measures: â€Å" merely is our complaint really that â€Å"the translator’s writing is never apt(p) full legal recognition”? (Venuti 1995, p. 9) Do we have to do away with the distinction between author and translator, or even with copyright altogether? ” (Pym 2010, p. 4).International Copyright law reinforces the idea that translation is not ‘transformative’ work, which is defined more narrowly in terms of criticism or parody. Translation as derivative work reachs within the course of instruction of ‘copy’ that is modulate by ‘copy-rights’. While much translation theory in the past 20 years since the emergence of translation studies as an academic discipline has struggled to establish translation as a serious reason endeavour honourable of scholarly attention, the commercial reality that regulates the production of translation tells a strikingly different tale: literary translation, as a form of cultural production, is regulated by the practices of the publishing industry.The translation of foreign literature is subject to norms, laws and market confinements, as well as architectural conditions. Lessing model of restriction that applies to all cultural commodities (i. e. : culture that is bought and sold, of which translated literature is part of (Lessing 2005, 133). Lessing sees cultural commodities as subjected to restrictions that until the twentieth century were fairly balanced: publishers’ rights were regulated by copyrights law, so as to limit their monopoly over the production and dissemination of culture. This guaranteed the single(a) ability to reproduce and translate literary works on behalf of the author for a bound time.The concept of a ‘limited monopoly’ was balanced by the fact that once such monopoly expired, artistic works would fall into the public domain and so become available for the general public to read, put out, make do and translate without the need to acquire the copyright holder permission. Unlike the law in continental Europe, accordi ng to common law practices in the US and UK, the copyright holder could control the dispersal and translation of a work regardless of the author’s wishes. In continental Europe, by contrast, the concept of ‘author’s rights’ recognise the deterrent example right to claim authorship of a work and to retain the ability of contain distribution of his work.One might wonder if, in the beginning the introduction of copyright laws, translators indulged indiscriminately in the plagiarism of foreign works as in the example of Tarchetti. The truth is that until 1790, in the united States the right granted by a copyright only gave the author the exclusive right to ‘publish’ a particular book and did not make pass to derivative works: â€Å"it would not interject with the right of someone other than the author to translate a copyrighted book, or to adapt the story to a different form (such as a looseness based on a published book)” (Lessing 2 005, 136) It seems almost impossible in the contemporary world to venture a time where the right of translators matched those of the foreign author.It seems inherent to imagine the chaos that lack of copyrights would cause: an measureless number of translators plagiarising the work of foreign authors and head them as their own creations. It is this disquiet in regards to plagiarism, of a lack of clearly naturalised standards of authorship that drives suspicion about translation. opus as creative genius is a value that is attached to a psyche or a work of art. This value can be seen reflected in the idea of ‘intellectual property’ which depicts copyrights rights as a natural state of affairs, that is, a natural property right. However, according to William Patry, copyrights are created completely the government and therefore should not be understood as an end in itself, but instead an end to a cordial objective: furthering learning (Patry moral panic, 103).Patr y argues that the essence of property is not despotic dominion over things, but rather, it is set(p) by a system of favorable relationships: â€Å"property is quintessentially and absolutely a social institution. Every concept of property reflects…those choices that we †as a society- have made” LAURA UNDERKUFFERLER, 203, 54 IN PATRY 103 (Patry 103). That means that copyrights, and the idea of authorship that underpins copyrights, are determined by social practices and therefore reflected in social norms, and finally and more concretely, in the legislation that regulate copyrights. Before copyright novelty in the United States became automatic in 1992, only a small percentage of authors claimed them, and even smaller percentage applied for renewal (Patry, 67-68).Paradoxically, copyright became valuable to corporations only when they were given automatically without authors having to do anything to claim it: â€Å" examine of renewal rates in the United Stes fro m 1910 to 2001 found a range between 3 percent in 1910 to 22 percent in 1991…of all the books published the united states in 1930, and therefore under copyright until 2025, only 174, or 1. 7 percent, are still in print” (Patry 68). The boundary that separates a legitimate creative response to a work of art and an illegitimate one is made perceptible in law by the bulwark to copy, adapt or translate without the assume of the foreign author. Such law, which seems almost common hotshot in contemporary society, has a relatively short history. Changing attitudes towards intellectual property rights reflect contemporary anxiety in regards to originality and authorship, which contributes to the marginality of translation.According to Venuti â€Å"whereas authorship is generally defined as originality, self-expression in a curious text, translation is derivative, neither self-expression nor unique: it imitates other text given the reigning concept of authorship, translatio n provokes the fear of inauthenticity, distortion, contamination” (Venuti 1998, 31). This anxiety affects the most those concerned about plagiarism, especially academic institutions and academic publishing: â€Å"translation is rarely considered a form of literary scholarship, it does not currently constitute a qualification for an academic appointment in a particular field or area of literary study, and, compared to original compositions translated texts are infrequently made the object of literary research” (Venuti 1998, 32). Here Venuti is critical of the academic deference towards the ‘original’ at the expenses of translation.The concept of authorship here joins that of fluent translation in an attempt to present the foreign author as the one who is ‘speaking’ through the medium of the text, in order to â€Å"ascertain the authorial intention that constitutes originality” (Venuti 1998, 31). The interpreter hence become an uncomforta ble midpoint man that must hide, as much as possible, both the facts that the text in question is a not the original, and that the foreign author did not employ the language of the translation. The middle man goes unnoticed, not by mere oversight, but quite deliberately. Copyright law, also reflected in translation contracts, uphold this neglect. Copyright, as we have seen, by delimitate translation as derivative work, release contracts that employ translators as work-for-hire, so that the product of their work belongs to the publishing company who do not have to acknowledge the translator.Practical example of this is the lack of the translator’s name on the cover of a mickle or in library muniment indexes, or the disagreement between the royalties that the translator receives in comparison to those of the foreign author. The disparity between authorship and translation affects the all in all production of commercially translated literature. What i would like to explo re next is the side of contemporary translation that is not affected by commercial consideration or in need of academic recognition. Here the lyric varies from non-commercial translation to amateur translation or fan-translation, but from the point of view of copyright holders it represents a more straightforward phenomenon: stealing of intellectual property, or in other words, piracy. PiracyAs Castells and Cardoso points out, we usually look at media consumption, of which translated literature is an example of, starting from a media industry definition (Castells and Cardoso 2012). In other words, the content that is normally available to us to read, make or listen to is usually made available through the payment of a fee or because it is supported by advertising. The commercial relationship that binds together media companies and individual is regulated by a set of rules that are legally formalised into rights and obligations (Castells and Cardoso 2012). Piracy, by infringing th ese rights and obligations, can be a usefully employed to illustrate some of the issues that characterise the status of translation in the current world, how translation is produced and distributed.In short, the argument I would like to put forward is such: piracy is used to describe everything that is not in the public domain but that can be obtained from non-authorised sources, shared with others, whether for free or not. This means that piracy could be whatever is made available to share that contain even parts, or traces, or adaptations, of actual copyrighted works. A pirate here is defined as anybody who makes use of quick copyrighted material in order to express something of his own (with the exception of criticism or parody, which are allowed by law) (WIPO? ). On one side of the debate there are inter solve users and in particular peer-to-peer (P2P) networks function as efficient tools of distribution of digital content. On the other, litigious media corporations flake a moral crusade against intellectual theft.The sides of this war, however, assume different connotations depending on who is doing the description: for the copyright holding corporations, authors are being robbed of the fruits of their work; here the fight is described as one between intellectual copyright owners and thieves. On the other side, is it estimated that more than 40 million American citizens have used the internet to download content; hence a substantial part of US citizens is being criminalised. Lessing asks: â€Å"Is there some other way to assure that artists get paid without transforming forty-three million Americans into felons? Does it make sense if there are other ways to assure that artists get paid without transforming America into a nation of felons? ” (Lessing 2005, 202).The model of distribution of culture that once revolved around a few selected corporations is now being challenged by technological innovations that were unimaginable a generation ago. D igital content can be shared across the world free of physical constrains (such as books, shops, belief press, etc. ) but also free from the editors, publishers, and reviewers which Venuti sees as the source of neglect of foreign texts and translation practices that emphasise heterogeneity of discourse. The sharing possibilities offered by the net act as a source of heterogeneity: they provide easily accessible, free to share, translated foreign literature that constitutes an alternative to what is available commercially.Venuti limited his theory of translation within the boundaries of commercial translation, albeit as a form of dissidence in assess to the practices enforced by institutional channels. What is of enkindle here from the point of view of translation are the possibilities offered by working outside the commercial paradigm, the translation practices of those communities that focus on literature, like dojinshi, that are not accessible to the translators working within the legitimate sphere, whether imputable to social norms, ideology, poetics, of purely economic reasons. The net provides a venue (cultural space? Deleuze and Guattari) for that sub-cultures that are neglected by commercial organizations (and that could not be catered for legally by other institutions). 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